Week 50 - Ars Nova: 1300-1400

1. Stuff done this week

- Read up on music theory: Scales and the Tonal System.

- Read Chapter 6 from A History of Western Music by Burkholder et al. (2014).
- Here a clip of me an Crimson Inc. performing for Sofar Amsterdam:



Crimson Inc. - The day we got lost

2. Listening done this week

Andrew Bird - So Much Wine

This is Andrew Bird's cover of a song written by The Handsome Family's Brett and Rennie Sparks. Bird is a an accomplished violinist and has made an album featuring only cover versions of the work of The Handsome Family. I love Bird's minimalist arrangement and I think it does create more unity with the lyrics of the song. It must convey the sadness and loneliness of two lovers being separated by the madness of alcohol addiction.

The text is graphic and leaves nothing to the imagination, adding to the sense that this miniature drama is about two simple, working class people: it is Joe Bloggs speaking to us. 

There is a layer of symbolic meaning added in the phrase "As meteors died/ And shot across the sky", signifying that the troubled protagonist has finally come to terms with the end of the relationship and made up his resolve to just leave everything behind. The meteors died, like the feelings for his love. It also adds to the sense that this drama means nothing in the grand scheme of things, we - as humans - are diminutive against a decor of a vast, indifferent universe. Though we are not given access to his mind, we can his guess at his musings about his existence, next to his car.

There is the symbolic presence of Death or Fate: "

And it will never be enough

to save you from the bottom of your glass". Fate will catch up with us, we must inevitably face our mortality.

I am intrigued by the ascending bass-line supporting the lyric "But when you fell asleep/with blood on your teeth". It is in many respects a cliché, making the song almost comical, giving the song a touch or irony. Almost like the protagonist makes a sneer at his lover, lying there pathetically, passed out with blood on her teeth.

I had nothing to say

on Christmas day 

When you threw all your clothes in the snow

When you burnt your hair,

knocked over chairs

I just tried to stay out of your way

But when you fell asleep

with blood on your teeth

I got in my car and drove away

Listen to me, Butterfly

There's only so much wine 

you can drink in one life 

And it will never be enough

to save you from the bottom of your glass

Where the state highway starts

I stopped my car

I got out and stared up at the stars

As meteors died

and shot cross the sky

I thought about your sad, shining eyes

I came back for my clothes

when the sun finally rose

But you were still passed out on the floor

3. What I learned

Here are my notes about Ars Nova, the music style of the late medieval period.

New Developments in the Fourteenth Century: Ars Nova

European Society in the 14th century

In the 14th century new opinions and insights emerged on many different areas. The rising economic tide of the previous three centuries reversed in the 1300's. Cooler weather reduced agricultural production. Floods in North Western Europe brought famine in 1315-22. During the period 1347-50 the Black Death wipes out a third of the population.

The feudal structure of society eroded. There were frequent wars, for instance the Hundred Year's War (1337 - 1453) between France and England. There were peasant and urban rebellions in France, England, Flanders, Germany, Italy and Spain.

The authority of the pope and the church was in crisis, resulting in the Great Schism between 1378 and 1417. There were rival claimants to the papacy in Rome, in Avignon and later in Pisa. People became increasingly disenchanted with the corrupt life of the clergy.

Human reasoning emancipated and a strong secularization manifested itself. In the 14th century, people began to separate science from religion. William of Ockham (ca. 1285-1349) argued that knowledge of nature and humanity should rest on experience of the senses, rather than reason alone. Natural phenoma should have simple, natural explanations instead of supernatural.

These secular interests and the drive to apply new thoughts and ideas were also represented in music of the period. One can discern a more pronounced emphasis on unity in composition (through imitation technique: repetition of a melody or motive in different parts of a composition), revolutionary rhythmic innovations (because of smaller note values and application of isorhythm), new musical genres and an increased used of musical instruments.

The Ars Nova in France: musical unity and rhythmical refinement

Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361), French composer, poet, church canon, administrator for the duke of Bourbon and the king of France, and later Bishop of Meaux, is named as the "inventor of a new art" or Ars Nova. This French musical style inaugurated by Philippe de Vitry in the 1310's, continued through the 1370's.

The Ars Nova proceeded from two important innovations in rhythmic notation:

1. In rhythm, imperfect time (duple division of time) began to compete with perfect time (triple division), which had dominated music up until then.
2. The expansion of the rhythmic system, through division of the semi-breve (formerly the smallest possible note value) into minims, was a significant innovation.

Developments in notation allowed notes to be written with greater independence of rhythm, moving away from the rhythmic modes of the 13th century. The resulting system offered new meters and allowed greater rhythmic flexibility, including - for the first time - syncopation. This became a prominent feature of 14th century melodies. The music of the period  becomes enormously refined in the area of rhythm. Rhythm became so subtle, that the music of the last two decennia of the century came to be labelled as "Ars Subtilior" or "the subtle art".

Harmonically, use of thirds and sixths became more commonplace, causing music of the Ars Nova to sound more familiar to our modern ears than that of the Ars Antigua.

The old practice of "composing collectively" came gradually to an end. From now, the composer wrote complete, new pieces on his own. This is reflected in the fact that the Ars Nova is the first period in music history in which the composers - in general - can be identified rather accurately. Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361), whose treatise "Ars Nova" gave the musical style of the period its name, Guilaume de Machaut (1300-1377) and Francesco Landini (1325-1397) were the most important composers.

Around 1340, theorist Jehan des Murs discussed another innovation: mensuration signs. These symbols are the ancestors of our modern time signatures. Music notation became very precise and unambiguous for both pitch and rhythm. Now, a piece of music could be written down in one city, carried to another, and be performed exactly as the composer intended. Our modern notation system is a direct descendant of Ars Nova notation.

Opponents as well as supporters acknowledged the new art. Opponents defended the "ancient art" or Ars Antigua, which refers to the music of the previous period 1150 - 1300. They were critical of the increased use of imperfect duple division in rhythm, instead of three-fold division (which was linked to the Holy Trinity). Also the increased use of imperfect consonances (3rds and 6ths) was found distasteful.

Isorhythm

During the 14th century, many motets were composed. Also in this genre, composers were seeking methods that would create more unity in songs. The tenor, now called cantus firmus ("fixed melody"), would often still be derived from Gregorian chants. The tenor moved slowly in comparison to the upper voices, so it was less heard as a melody and served more as a foundation for the entire polyphonic structure. Alternatively, for the upper voices more elaborate melodies were written, replacing the recurring, short melodic lines of the Ars Antigua music.

Also rhythmic patterns were lengthened. These elaborate rhythmic and melodic patterns, respectively called the talea and color, could contribute to a more unified structure, because they started to serve as repetitive units within the composition. Repetition of rhythmic patterns and specificic melodic intervals in the tenor already created a certain unity, but by also using these patterns for the duplum and triplum, the whole composition became more coherent.

Below,  three isorhythmic motets by Machaut: "Quant en May", "Amour et biaute" and "Amara Valde":

Three examples of isorhythmic motet by Guillaume de Machaut, by the Hilliard Ensemble

Also, a technique called "hocket" was sometimes used. This involved the alternation of two voices in rapid succession, each resting while the other sings. Passages in hocket appear in some 13th century conductus and motets and are frequently found in 14th century isorhythmic works.

 The basic idea of isorhythm - arranging durations in a pattern that repeats -  was not new in the 14th century, but it was applied in ever more extended and complex ways. Isorhythmic motets were composed for performance to educated audiences of the upper society, who would appreciate such complexity or meaning.

Guillaume de Machaut (ca. 1300 - 1377)

De Machaut (ca. 1300 - 1377) is considered to be the most important composer and poet of the French Ars Nova period. He was born in the province of Champagne, North Eastern France (see: post 34).

Machaut was one of the first composers to compile his complete work and to discuss his working methods. From about 1350  on, he gathered all his works in manuscripts prepared for his patrons. These collections show Machauts's self awareness as an individual creator and indicate a desire to preserve his creations for posterity.

Motets

He wrote 23 motets that prominently featured the use of the isorhythm technique.

Mass

De Machaut was the first composer who applied the isorhythm principle in the setting of the Ordinary of Mass. His "Messe de Nostre Dame" is set for 4 voices, in a manner that became more common in the Renaissance. The Mass has a very solid unity (Steffelaar, 2007)

"Messe de Nostre Dame" by Ensemble Organum, directed by Marcel Pérès

The Mass features a contratenor as second supporting voice, in the same range as the tenor, sometimes below it and sometimes above. Most vertical sonorities feature imperfect consonances (3rds and 6ths), yet parallel octaves and 5ths were still common, distinguishing 14th century music from 15th century music.

Monophonic songs

In France, ballads (serious songs appropriate for philosophical or historical themes), rondeaus (themes of love), virelais (songs featuring descriptions of nature related to love) and lais were popular musical forms. Here is an example of a monophonic virelais: "Douce Dame Jolie" by Machaut.

Machaut's "Douce Dame Jolie", performed by Mark Dobell

Polyphonic songs

A major innovation of the Ars Nova was the development of polyphonic songs, or chansons in treble dominated style. In this style, the upper voice carrying the text (cantus) or treble is the principle line, supported by a slower- moving tenor without text.

To this essential two voice framework, maybe one or two untexted voices would be added: a contratenor in the same range as the tenor, or, less often, a fast-moving triplum in the treble range.

The Ars Subtilior

In the 14th century a significant refinement in rhythm appears. The rhythm becomes so subtle that the music of the last two decennia of the century is referred to as Ars Subtilior.

Italian Trecento Music

In Italy the madrigal, the caccia and the ballata were the main secular forms of polyphonic music.

The madrigal is written in vernacular language and features two voices: one adorned upper voice and a lower voice with long drawn out notes. The 14th century madrigals feature 2 to 4 stanzas of three lines of poetry and a closing ritornello of two lines.

The caccia is a composition for three voices set in vernacular language that portrays some sort of "chase". The lowest voice, moving in slow drawn out notes, was probably performed with a musical instrument. The two top voices were set in canon, supporting the feel of a "hunt" in this genre, as one voice would continually "chase" the other.

The text does not always depict a hunt; it could also describe a busy, lively scene as subject, like a market place, or battle field, for instance.

In this genre, musical idiom like hocket or echo effects is prominently featured, evoking an exiting dialogue. Cacce (plural) were popular in Italy and France around the middle of the 14th century.

The ballata was a popular dancing song in Italy, in the 13th century. It consisted of some stanzas sung by a soloist and a refrain (ripresa) that was sung polyphonically.

In the 14th century, the ballata is a two- or three voice (one singer with one or two instrumental voices) lyrical composition, much like the French virelai. The number of stanzas is not fixed. An example is Francesco Landini's "Ecco la Primavera".

Landini's Ecco la Primavera, by The Waverly Consort

Fourteenth century in performance

Musicians in the 14th through 16th century distinguished between instruments based on their relative loudnes, using haut (high) and bas (low) for volume, rather than pitch. The most common low instruments were: harps, vielles, lutes, psalteries, portative organs, transverse flutes, and recorders. Among the high instruments were shawms, cornetts, and trumpets. Percussion instruments, including kettle drums, small bells, and cymbals, were common in ensembles of all kinds.

Musicians from the 14th through 16th century often raised or lowered notes by a semitone. They did this to avoid the tritone F-B in a melody; to make a smoother melodic line; to avoid sounding an augmented fourth or diminished fifth above the lowest note; or to provide a sweeter-sounding harmony.

This practice was called musica ficta ("feigned music"), because most altered notes lay outside the standard gamut.

Concluding remarks

The new art had a profound and continuing impact on music and musical life in later centuries. Most significant was the invention of a precise and unambiguous notation that could record a wide variety of rhythms and allowed music to be distributed in writing and performed accurately wherever it went.

Style Elements of Ars Nova (1300-1400)

1. Voicing: Further development of polyphony (some 4 voice pieces). The polyphony is still lineair, but harmonic insight grows (especially with Machaut). Employment of the imitation technique becomes manifest. In Italy there was more lean towards homophony.
2. Tone range: More than an octave, particularly in the higher voices.
3. Tone system: Church modes. A limited use of chromaticism can be heard (musica ficta).
4. Melody: Irregular and asymetrical melodies (many phrases of different lengths). First examples of expressive chromaticism.
5. Rhythm: Liberation of musical rhythm, in particular from the rhythmic modes. Expansion of the rhythmic suystem with smaller note values (minim). Advent of duple rhythm. Isorhythm. Generally, a refined and complex rhythm.
6. Harmony: Harmonic sense develops. Parallel 4ths and 5ths are avoided, 3rds and 6ths become more common.
7. Structure: More complex structures and compositions.
8. Relation text-music: In the motet form still combination of texts in Latin and vernacular language.
9. Genres an forms: France: polyphonic Mass, isorhythmic motet, rondeaus, ballads, vrelais, lais, chace. Italy: madrigal, caccia, ballata, instrumental dances.
10. Significance: Enormous rhythmic refinement. Harmony becomes more important. Shift from religious to secular music.

4. Sources

BARTJE BARTMANS, 9. Music of the Middle Ages; Isorhythmic motet {de Machaut}, videorecording, Youtube, viewed 2nd of January 2017, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cu7-RV7XB9k>

BURKHOLDER, J, GROUT, D. and PALISCA, C. (2014) A history of western music, 9th edition, New York: W.W. Norton. Pages 111-141.

MARIAVOGELBIRD, Francesco Landini - Ecco la primavera, videorecording, Youtube, viewed 2nd of January 2017, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nHXtzNxzOYs>

MISERERE MEI, Machaut - Messe de Notre Dame (Ensemble Organum), videorecording, Youtube, viewed 2nd of January 2017, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gEV42RKf6E>

STEFFELAAR, W. (2007) Muzikale Stijlgeschiedenis, 2nd edition, Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Nieuwezijds.

Z CELL, Guillaume de Machaut, "Douce dame jolie", Youtube, viewed 2nd of January 2017, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=io123qVOCJo>