Weeks 44-45: Music for Chamber and Church in the Early 17th Century (Part II)
1. Stuff done these weeks
- Continued my study of Baroque era music forms. My notes from Burkholder et al. (2014) are presented below.
- Continued my study of Baroque era music forms. My notes from Burkholder et al. (2014) are presented below.
2. Listening done these weeks
Fascinating, complex song by 70's folk singer Judee Sill (1944 – 1979). It draws on church liturgy and almost has the feel of a polyphonic Mass.
"Kyrie eleison, kyrie eleison
Kyrie eleison, eleison,
Eleison, eleison
Kyrie eleison, kyrie eleison
So sad, and so true
That even shadows come
And hum the requiem..."
Judee Sill - The Donor
There is an interesting documentary on her life; the years of her short life (only 35!) were invariably harsh.
The Lost Genius of Judee Sill (2014 BBC Radio Documentary)
3. What I have learned
Lutheran Church Music
In German speaking regions, composers in both the Catholic and Lutheran churches adopted the new monodic and concertato techniques. Alongside compositions in modern style, Lutheran composers also wrote polyphonic chorale motets and motets on biblical texts without chorale melodies.Composer Heinrich Schütz (1585 - 1672) was a master at applying the new Italian styles to church music. He introduced the approaches by Venetians Gabrieli (whom he studied with) and Monteverdi to Germany, where he was chapel master at the Saxon court in Dresden. Although a Lutheran, he seldom used chorale melodies but rather created motets and sacred concertos on texts from the Bible and other sources.
Schütz wrote the small sacred concertos out of necessity during the 1630's for church services at Dresden. The chapel had been greatly reduced in size due to the Thirty Years' War, that drained his patron's treasury. The concertos were for only one to five solo voices, fewer singers than most of his earlier works, and used no instruments beyond the continuo. The two volumes of small sacred concertos suited the need for small works suitable for performance in Lutheran churches.
Two volumes of sacred symphonies appeared in 1647 and 1650. A third used the full musical resources of the Dresden chapel, that became available after the war. The large-scale concerto "Saul, was verfolgst du mich" requires two choirs doubled by instruments, six solo voices, two violins and continuo. It combines the polychoral style of Gabrieli with the dissonant rhetoric of Monteverdi. The work typifies Schütz's use of musical figures to convey the meaning of the words.
A prominent genre in the Lutheran music tradition was the historia, a musical setting on a biblical narrative. The most common type of historia was a Passion, a musical setting of the suffering and crucifixion of Christ by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. In the 16th century, there already was a tradition of the dramatic passion, in which Gregorian solos were alternated by polyphonic parts in motet style. And there was the motet passion, in which the full text was set to a series of polyphonic motets.
The passion in oratorio format, which formed as a new genre halfway through the 17th century, was much like the oratorio. In this passion, all techniques (recitative, arias, ensembles, choruses and instrumental passages) were employed to realize an expressive, dramatic performance. Later, new poetic texts and chorales were added. The German oratorio began with Heinrich Schütz, a composer whose style blends German and Italian elements. His passion oratorios show great powers of emotional expression and anticipate those of J.S. Bach in their vigorous treatment of the choruses. In his "Easter Oratorio" (published 1623) Schütz retains the old convention of treating the narrative in plainsong and the words of the disciples, the crowd, and other groups in polyphonic motet style.
"Easter Oratorio" by Heinrich Schütz (1585 - 1672)
Instrumental Music
During the Baroque era, instrumental music became just as important as vocal music. For the first time in music history, musical instruments were used on a large scale for instrumental music, independent and separate from vocal music: sonatas, suites, concertos and keyboard compositions. Size and structure of the ensembles varied enormously, as composers wrote for any instrumental combination. Baroque music was mostly composed for certain events and the audience was generally fascinated by new compositions, rather than the "old". This created a situation in which a composer had to produce new work on a regular basis, but his work would almost certainly be performed immediately.
Types of instrumental music
There are several ways to categorize Baroque instrumental music. Four approaches are helpful:
- Performing forces: We find solo works, for keyboard, lute, theorbo, guitar, or harp; chamber works , for soloist or chamber group with continuo; and large-ensemble works, for two or more players on a part.
- Venue or social function: Like vocal music, instrumental works would serve the church (e.g. organ/ensemble works in religious services), chamber (e.g. solo and small ensemble music for private entertainment or public pageants) or theater.
- Nationality: Italian, English, French, Spanish and Italian music differs in genre and stylistic elements. It is interesting to see how Baroque composers frequently used elements from music of other lands to blend with their music.
- Type of composition: Until 1650, the following broad categories prevailed:
- keyboard or lute pieces in improvisatory style, called toccata, fantasia or prelude
- fugal pieces in continuous imitative counterpoint, called ricercare, fanatasia, fancy, capriccio, or fugue
- pieces with contrasting sections, often in imitative counterpoint, called canzona or sonata
- setting of existing melodies, as in an organ verse or chorale prelude
- pieces that vary a given melody (variations, partita), chorale (chorale variations, chorale partita), or bass line (partita, chaconne, passacaglia)
- dances and other pieces in stylized dance rhythms, whether independent, paired, or linked together in a suite.
Works for ensemble fell into two categories: sonata and suite. Large ensemble music encompassed suites, sinfonias and the instrumental concerto.
Compositions for harpsichord, organ or other keyboard instrument appeared in various genres and forms. The fantasia or prelude are short, semi-improvised pieces. In the ricercare, a theme is played uninterrupted in imitative style. Toccatas were particularly used to demonstrate the virtuosity of the peformer. In chorale preludes, chorales were incorporated. Fugues were written for organ and were very popular at the time. The performer usually used different registers to emphasize the re-appearance of the main melodic theme (subject).
Variations forms, such as the passacaglia and chaconne were also very common, just as the suite (named a partita in Germany), which was a multi-part work with at least four basic dances: allemande, courante, sarabande and gigue.
The Baroque era yielded some brilliant keyboard masters. Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583-1643) was a famous improviser on the organ. Louis Couperin (1626-1661) wrote fascinating harpsichord dances, not yet structured into suites. Francois Couperin (1668-1733) composed 'ordres' for harpsichord, which are dances featuring delicate, ornate melodic lines, arranged in suites
Elements of one style or type of work often appear in another. For example, the process of varying an idea can be found in ricercares, canzonas, and dance suites as well as variations. Toccatas may include fugal sections, and canzonas may have sections in improvisatory style. The Baroque was about all about mixing and contrast: Composers would exploit differences in style and texture as elements of form and expression.
Toccata
Toccatas and other improvisatory pieces were played on the harpsichord (as chamber music) or the organ (as service music). The most important composer of toccatas was Girolamo Frescobaldi. His "Fiori Musicali" ("Musical Flowers"), a set of three organ masses, demonstrates how the toccata was used as service music. It was first published in 1635. It is acknowledged as one of Frescobaldi's best works, and influenced composers during at least two centuries. Johann Sebastian Bach was among its admirers, and parts of it were included in the celebrated 1725 treatise "Gradus ad parnassum" by Johann Joseph Fux which was in use even in the 19th century.
"Fiori Musicali" by Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583-1643)
The Fiori consist of the following three masses: "Missa della Domenica" (Sunday Mass), "Missa degli Apostoli" ("Mass of the Apostles"), "Missa della Madonna" ("Mass of the Virgin").
Each mass includes a number of pieces to be played at key moments before and during the service, and several settings of the first section of the Mass ordinary, Kyrie.
Frescobaldi employs a mix of forms: canzonas (Canzon dopo l'epistola) for the Gradual section of the mass, and ricercars (Recercar dopo il Credo) for the Offertory. Wikipedia (2017) has a informative diagram of the structure of Fiori musicali:
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| A structural diagram "Fiori musicali" from From Wikipedia (2017) |
The masses are followed by two capriccios on secular tunes - the Bergamasca and the Girolmeta.
Ricercare and Fugue
The 17th century ricercare was typically a serious composition for organ or harpsichord in which one subject, or theme, is continuously developed in imitation.In the early 17th century, some composers, especially in Germany, began to apply the term fugue (from the Italian fuga, "flight"), formerly used for the technique of imitation itself, as the name of a genre of serious pieces that treat one theme in continuous imitation. I have written about this in an earlier blog of mine (please find it here). Fugues were often written for organ performance, and were very popular during the Baroque era.
Fantasia
The keyboard fantasia is an imitative, semi-improvisatory work on a larger scale than the ricercare, with a more complex and formal structure. Dutch organist Jan Pieterzoon Sweelinck (1562 - 1621) and his German pupil Samuel Scheidt (1587 - 1654) were leading composers of this genre.Here a performance of "Fantasia Chromatica" by Sweelinck, performed by Helmut Walcha in 1977.
"Fantasia Chromatica" by Jan Pieterzoon Sweelinck
Canzona
As in the 16th century, the canzona was an imitative piece for keyboard or ensemble in several contrasting sections, played either as chamber music or in church. Canzonas featured markedly rhythmic themes and a more lively character than ricercares. An example of this form is found again in the "Fiori Musicali" by Frescobaldi.
Sonata
The term sonata was often used early in the 17th century to refer broadly to any chamber piece for instruments. It gradually came to designate a composition that resembled a canzona in form but with special characteristics. Sonatas were often scored for one or two melody instruments, usually violins, with basso continuo, while the ensemble canzona was written in four or more parts that could be played without continuo.
Chamber music in the Baroque era, was usually accompanied by basso continuo. The most popular genres were the solo sonata and especially the trio sonata. The latter rather confusingly consisted of at least four instruments: two solo-instruments with continuo accompaniment (harpsichord or organ and viola da gamba or cello). The two solo instruments would play together in imitative counterpoint.
The sonatas can be divided into two types: the sonata di chiesa (church sonata), containing four parts in alternating slow-quick-slow-quick tempi, and the sonata da camera (chamber sonata), featuring contrasting dance parts
Eminent composer of sonatas was Arcangelo Corelli (1653 - 1713). Below, a trio sonata da chiesa: Allegro from Sonata opus 3, number 1 in F Major. The composition opens with a slow (Grave) part with a meditative feel. The solemn opening is followed by a lively allegro, creating a contrast. The theme is played by the violin, then imitated by the flute, and then by the cello. With the cello, immediately the second continuo instrument is added: the piano.
"Allegro from Sonata opus 3, number 1 in F Major" by Arcangelo Corelli
Settings of existing melodies
Organists improvised or composed settings of liturgical melodies for use in church services. These works include organ verses on Gregorian chant, like Kyrie and Christie settings of Frescobaldi's organ masses, and various kinds of chorale settings, known as organ chorales or chorale preludes. The chorale was particularly popular in middle and Northern Germany.
Variations
Keyboard and lute composers wrote sets of variations on borrowed or newly composed themes known as variations or partite (parts or divisions). The forms most familiar are the chaconne and the passacaglia (aritornello improvised over a simple cadential progression). Frescobaldi wrote one of the earliest known keyboard variations: "Partite sopra ciaconna" and "Partite sopra passacagli", published in 1627.
Dance Music
Dances were composed for social dancing, theatrical spectacles and chamber performances. They were so central to music life, that dance rhythms permeated other vocal and instrumental music.
The idea of linking two or three dances together, such as pavane and galliard, was now extended to create a suite of several dances, used either for dancing or as chamber music. I wrote a short piece on suites in an earlier blog.
Conclusion
The Baroque was a period of incredible innovation in chamber, church and instrumental music. These kinds of music drew upon sixteenth century traditions, but redefined them by combining styles and techniques.
The period was of lasting importance, for it resulted in many new music forms: cantata, sacred concerto, oratorio, sonata, partita, chaconne, passacaglia, and dance suite. It established techniques such as basso continuo, the concerted style, and ground bass. It fostered new expressive devices and an increasingly separate instrumental tradition.
Noteworthy is the recognition that different styles were appropriate for different purposes: the old style (stile antico) was preserved and practiced alongside newer ones. At the same time, most styles could be used outside their original contexts for expressive ends, so that, for example, theatrical styles were used in church.
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Style Elements of the Baroque era (1600-1750)
- Voicing: Monody (solo singing with basso continuo accompaniment in the early Baroque, later on a much embellished harmonic polyphony (also with basso continuo).
- Tone range: Very large (further extension to the high and low registers).
- Tone system: Major and Minor scales replace the church scales, so modality disapears.
- Melody: Complex, embellished melodic lines. The musical phrases vary in length (assymetric) and run over eachother.
- Rhythm: Often in compound duple time (6/8, 9/8, 12/8) with various effects (passionate, agitated, etc..)
- Harmony: Rich harmonic embellishements and rather a lot of chromaticism and dissonants. Rapid succession of chords.
- Structure: Complex structure. Many parts. Variation rectatives, arias, choir and instrumental interplay in opera, oratorium, cantata.
- Relation text-music: Rather a lot of word painting
- Genres an forms: Opera, oratorium, passion, cantata and anthem. Chamber- and church sonata. Solo and trio sonata. Concerto grosso and solo concert. Ouverture. Organ- and harpsichord music: suite, fuga, fantasia, toccata, prelude, passacaglia.
- Significance: Birth of opera. Music became more dramatic and theatrical. Flourishing instrumental music. Basso continuo with all music. Concerted style (competing vocal and instrumental forces and ensembles).
4. Sources
bsellman2 (2011) Dolce Suono plays Corelli: Sonata da chiesa in F Major, Op. 3, No. 1, Youtube, viewed 10th of December 2017, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPT8jU1LjU4>.
Harm Snel (2014) The Lost Genius of Judee Sill (2014 BBC Radio Documentary), Youtube, viewed 11th of December 2017, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T6cEreyGpYI&t=263s>.
olla-vogala (2015) Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck - Fantasia Cromatica, Youtube, viewed 10th of December 2017, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EHExcd6PYxQ>
peter1177j (2012) JJudee Sill - The Donor, Youtube, viewed 11th of December 2017, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZeITxqrAOws>
WIKIPEDIA (2017) Fiori musicali, Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiori_musicali [Accessed 10th december 2017]
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